Kamis, 30 Juni 2016
Sabtu, 28 Mei 2016
applied in linguistics
Applied Linguistics is concerned with practical issues involving
language in the life of the community. The most important of these is
the learning of second or foreign languages. Others include language
policy, multilingualism, language education, the preservation and
revival of endangered languages, and the assessment and treatment of
language difficulties.
Other areas of interest include professional communication, for example, between doctors and their patients, between lawyers and their clients and in courtrooms, as well as other areas of institutional and cross-cultural communication ranging from the boardroom to the routines on an answer phone.
Linguistics and Applied Linguistics is a challenging and stimulating discipline, offering many opportunities for original work.
Defining Semiotics
Other areas of interest include professional communication, for example, between doctors and their patients, between lawyers and their clients and in courtrooms, as well as other areas of institutional and cross-cultural communication ranging from the boardroom to the routines on an answer phone.
Linguistics and Applied Linguistics is a challenging and stimulating discipline, offering many opportunities for original work.
Defining Semiotics
Have you ever thought about why
certain words mean what they do? In an age when 'mouse' can mean a little
rodent or a computer device, it's easy to question exactly what words mean and
how we make sense of them. This question of meaning is at the heart of
semiotics.
Semiotics is the study of sign systems. It explores how words and
other signs make meaning. In semiotics, a sign is anything that stands
in for something other than itself. This lesson focuses primarily on linguistic
signs.
The word 'semiotics' dates back to
ancient Greece, but its use in modern linguistics was propelled in the 19th
century with the research of Ferdinand de Saussure. Saussure was a Swiss
linguist who contributed greatly to the study of semiotics, also sometimes
referred to as semiology.
Scholars of modern linguistics
understand that words do not have innate meanings. That is, when we say the
word 'rabbit', it is not because those sounds or letter symbols have anything
to do with the qualities of a small, furry herbivore. In fact, the word,
sounds, and letters are all unrelated to the creature we call rabbit, except
that humans have assigned a value to them.
Because people have developed the
ability to assign meaning with words, we are able to describe abstract
meanings. This means we have words for things that we may not be able to
actually see in front of us. Furthermore, the history of a word may not
directly influence what it means to someone. As an example, we can use the word
'cool' without any thought or reference to temperature. The usage is separate
from its history.
For Saussure, language itself makes
meaning rather than simply conveying meaning. Therefore, our experience is
influenced by the language we use to describe it. This meaning-making is why
the theories of Saussure have become important to literary theory. When we
understand that language is a sign system and not just a naming of objects, we
read and discuss literary works differently. We are able to analyze the various
meanings embedded in a text and how one text influences another.
Understanding
Meaning-Making
Saussure developed a widely used model
of semiotics. In order to understand his model, one must recognize the
difference between what he called la langue (language) and la
parole (speech). La langue is the set of language rules that
every speaker understands, including how to make sounds into words and words
into sentences. La parole is the actual utterance made by a person.
You can think of communication like
swimming. La langue is the swimming pool, and la parole is the
water. To be conducive to swimming, water needs a structure to hold it
together, like speech needs the structure of our language system (la langue).
The words we speak (la parole) make sense based only on the structure
that holds them together, just like water can only be used for swimming if
something contains it.
Signs are a basic component of la
langue. They are like the pumps that push water into the pool. Pumps are
part of the pool's structure that make it possible for water to come forth.
Similarly, a sign must also exist for the speech act, or la parole, to
occur.
Icon, Index and symbols
Based on Charles Sanders Peirce’s idea,
semiotics distinguished between three types of signs: icon, index and
symbol. Peirce said that signs could be defined as these three
categories. Signs are also defined as something visual that represent a
meaning to the public or particular people. All these three words which
are icon, index and symbol are a tool for analyzing the core of
semiotics which is the language of signs.
Icon is
better to be considered first. Essentially, icon means a pictorial
representation of something. An icon also can be illustrative or
diagrammatic. For example, the “No smoking sign” below always reminds
of a very important message “You are not allowed to smoke in this
place”. So, it really is warning us that we are not allowed to smoke or
if we smoke we are going to face the law. In essence, in this sign we
see a picture of cigarette that is lit up and a red line drawn on it to
show that cigarette is extremely prohibited in a particular place.
Index
sign is another type of signs. Basically, an Index signs is a sign
where there is a direct link between the sign and the object. Most of
traffic signs are index signs, because, they give information which
relates to a particular location. Traffic signs or road signs are signs placed at the side of roads
to provide information to drivers. For example, picture of “No U turn”
traffic sign is simple to analyze, because its meaning is obvious.
Whenever we are driving in a road and face this sign, automatically, we
know that we may not turn because it is prohibited. If we do so, we are
going to face further penalties.
Symbol is another type of signs that are important to be considered. A
symbol has no logical meaning between it and the object. For instance,
if we look at the symbol of love below, we see a red heart that every
time we see it, it gives us the sign of love. As everyone knows, the
most common symbol for love and certainly the most recognizable is the
Heart symbol. But, why the shape of heart is shown like that? As, it was
written before, symbols may not have any logical meaning to its object
represented. The shape of heart is only assumed to be the sign of love
and has become a symbol in the society during ages. So, the shape of
heart always is used to strengthen relationships and passion. The heart
shape may convey a lot of massages that all of them are related to love
at the end. One of the meanings that it may convey is that a new love
interest is on the way or another massage is that sometimes you should
pay Closer attention to loved ones at this time.
Basically,
all these three words which are icon, index and symbol have a
particular meaning. They all are related to each other in some ways. To
prove, they all are representing a meaning which sometimes can be
straight forward like index signs or somehow vague like symbols which
some of them are needed to be studied and some of them have got a
meaning during ages. It was the way I analyze the three signs of
semiotics which are Icon, Index and symbols. What do you think about
these three types of signs?
Sabtu, 07 Mei 2016
lexicology
WHAT IS LEXICOLOGY ?
Lexicology is the study of lexis or stock of words in a language or a branch of linguistics concerned with the signification and application of words. Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, the science of language. The term Lexicology is composed of two Greek morphemes: lexis meaning ‘word, phrase’ and logos which denotes ‘learning, a department of knowledge’. Thus, the literal meaning of the term Lex iсolоgу is ‘the science of the word’. The literal, meaning,however, gives only a general notion of the aims and the subject.
Tthis branch of linguistic science, since all its other branches also take account of words in one way or another approaching them from different angles. Phonetics, for instance, investigating the phonetic structure of language, i.e. its system of phonemes and intonation patterns, is concerned with the study of the outer sound form of the word. Grammar, which is inseparably bound up with Lexicology, is the study of the grammatical structure of language. It is concerned with the various means of expressing grammatical relations between words and with the patterns after which words are combined into word.EXICOLOGY ?
Lexicology is the study of lexis or stock of words in a language or a branch of linguistics concerned with the signification and application of words. Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, the science of language. The term Lexicology is composed of two Greek morphemes: lexis meaning ‘word, phrase’ and logos which denotes ‘learning, a department of knowledge’. Thus, the literal meaning of the term Lex iсolоgу is ‘the science of the word’. The literal, meaning,however, gives only a general notion of the aims and the subject.
Tthis branch of linguistic science, since all its other branches also take account of words in one way or another approaching them from different angles. Phonetics, for instance, investigating the phonetic structure of language, i.e. its system of phonemes and intonation patterns, is concerned with the study of the outer sound form of the word. Grammar, which is inseparably bound up with Lexicology, is the study of the grammatical structure of language. It is concerned with the various means of expressing grammatical relations between words and with the patterns after which words are combined into word.EXICOLOGY ?
semantics
SEMANTICS : STUDY
OF MEANING AND REFERENCE
Menurut Palmer (1976:1) : Semantics is the
technical terms used to refer to the study of meaning, and since meaning is a
part of language, semantics is a part of linguistics. (Istilah yang digunakan
yang mengacu pada ilmu bidang makna, dan karena makna adalah bagian dari
bahasa, maka semantics adalah cabang dari ilmu linguistics.
Linguistics semantics
merupakan studi tentang makna yang digunakan untuk memahami ekspresi manusia
melalui bahasa. Semantics adalah sub-bidang yang dikhususkan untuk mempelajari
makna, seperti kata, frasa, kalimat dan unit yang lebih besar dari teks
tersebut. Semantics ini biasanya berhubungan dengan 2 aspek lain, yaitu syntax
(pembentukan simbol kompleks dari simbol yang lebih sederhana), Pragmatis
(penggunaan praktis simbol oleh rakyat dalam konteks tertentu).
Secara umum,
semantics merupakan study dari arti atau makna dan anggapan yang terkait dalam
bahasa. Secara logika atau nalar, semantics sebagai reference atau petunjuk
linguistics dan kondisi sebenarnya dalam bahasa. Deskripsi semantics dalam
hakikat kebahasaan harus mencatat fakta dari suatu makna, lingusitics reference,
dan pada keadaan yang sebenarnya. Bahasa sering didefinisikan sebagai sistem
konvensional dalam berkomunikasi, yaitu sistem untuk menyampaikan pesan.
Komunikasi akan tercapai jika hanya pesan yang disampaikan tersebut memiliki
arti. sangatlah penting untuk mengetahui artinya dan itu mengandung semantics.
Jadi, semantics itu adalah cabang linguistics yang meneliti arti dan makna.
JENIS-JENIS
SEMANTICS
1.
Semantics Behavioris
Merupakan makna
ditentukan oleh situasi yang ditentukan oleh lingkungan. Maka hanya dapat
dipahami apabila ada data yang dapat diamati didalam lingkungan pengalaman
manusia. Contohnya : seorang ibu yang menyuapkan makanan pada sibayi.
2.
Semantics Descriptive
kajian
semantics yang khusu memperlihatkan makna yang sekarang berlaku. Jadi semantics
decriptive hanya memperhatikan makna sekarang. Contohnya adalah kata juara
yaitu orang yang mendapat peringkat teratas tanpa memperhatikan makna
sebelumnya.
3.
Semantics Generatif
Tata
bahasa terdiri dari sturktur dalam yang berisi tidak lain dari struktur dalam
yang berisi tidak lain dari struktur semantics dan struktur luar yang merupakan
perwujudan ujaran kedua struktur ini dihubungkan dengan suatu proses yang
disebut transformasi.
4.
Semantics Grammatical
Mengkaji makna
yang terdapat dalam satuan kalimat.
5.
Semantics Lexical
Yang lebih
memuasakan pada sistem makna yang terdapat dalam kata. Kamus merupakan sebuah
contoh yang tepat untuk semantics lexical karena makna setiap kata diuraikan
disitu. Jadi semantics lexical ini memperhatikan makna yang terdapat didalam
kalimat kata sebagai satuan mandiri.
6.
Semantics historis
sistem
makna dalam rangkaian waktu, bukan perubahan pembentukan kata. Semantics ini
membandingkan kata-kata berdasarkan periode atau antara kata pada masa tertentu
dengan kata pada bahasa yang lain.
7.
Semantics logika
Yang berkaitan
dengan konsep-konsep dan notasi simbolik dalam analisis bahasa. Semantic logika
mengkaji sistem makna yang dilihat dari logika seperti matematika yang mengacu
kepada kata pengkajian makna atau penafsiran ajaran.
8.
Semantics Structural
Sebuah hubungan
struktur yang terdiri dari unsur berupa phonems, morphonems, words, phrase’s,
clause’s, sentences, dan wacana yang membagianya menjadi kakjian phonology,
morphology, syntax, dan text.
Sabtu, 09 April 2016
syntax
SYNTAX
WHAT IS SYNTAX ?
Syntax adalah proses penyusunan kalimat dalam bahasa tertentu.
Ada dua bagian kalimat yang sangat penting dalam menganalisis syntax, yaitu: frasa dan klausa
Frasa (Phrase)
Frasa merupakan sekelompok kata yang mempunyai fungsi sebagai suatu unit pada sebuah kalimat (suatu kelompok kata yang membentuk unit gramatikal). Frasa (Phrase) terbagi dalam beberapa, yaitu
1. Frasa Nomina (Noun Phrase)
Frasa nomina adalah frasa yang berasal dari kata benda (nouns) yang berfungsi sebagai subjek atau objek kalimat. Frasa nomina adalah suatu nomina atau pronominal yang didahului oleh determinan atau kata sandang atau suatu nomina yang didahului oleh satu atau lebih adjektiva yang keseluruhanya didahului kata sandang. Contoh :
1) The Doctor
det noun
2) A beautiful girl
det adjective noun
2. Frasa Verba (Verb Phrase)
Frasa verba merupakan frasa yang terdiri dari gabungan kata kerja bantu (axiliary verb) dengan kata kerja (verbs). Frasa verba adalah verba yang berfrasa. Frasa verba terdiri dari frasa tunggal yang terkadang merupakan gabungan dari main verb ( verba utama) dan auxiliary verb ( kata kerja bantu), namun dapat pula ditambahkan specifiers, complements, dan adjuncts. Contoh :
Binar has taken the job.
aux verb
He has been coming late everyday.
aux verb
3. Frasa Adjektiva (Adjective Phrase)
Frasa kata sifat atau adjektiva adalah frasa yang berasal dari kata sifat yang digunakan untuk memberi sifat kepada kata benda (nouns) atau kata ganti (pronoun).
Tony lost his dark brown briefcase.
AdjP
4. Frasa Adverbial (Adverb Phrase)
Frasa adverbial adalah frasa yang berfungsi sebagai kata keterangan yang digunakan untuk menerangkan kata kerja (verbs).
Mika usually gets up early.
AdvP
5. Frasa Preposisi (Prepositional Phrase)
The book on the bathroom floor is swollen from shower steam.
Prep.P
Klausa (Clause)
Klausa bebas (main clause) adalah klausa bebas (independent clause) yang terdapat di dalam sebuah kalimat majemuk (complex sentence).
1. Klausa Bebas (Independent Clause)
Klausa bebas adalah klausa yang mempunyai struktur lengkap dan berpotensi menjadi kalimat mayor.
2. Klausa Terikat (Dependent Clause)
Klausa terikat adalah klausa yang mempunyai struktur tidak lengkap, biasanya disertai unsur-unsur konjungsi subordinatif. Klausa terikat juga dapat didefinisikan sebagai klausa yang tidak dapat berdiri sendiri sebagai kalimat sempurna, hanya mempunyai potensi sebagai kalimat tidak sempurna.
Dilihat dari fungsinya, klausa terikat ini dapat dibedakan, yaitu:
* Klausa Nomina (Noun Clause)
Klausa yang bertindak sebagai nomina ditandai dengan adanya wh-words, how, dan that.
* Klausa Adjektiva (Adjective Clause)
Klausa terikat yang bertindak sebagai adjektiva ditandai dengan adanya relative pronoun, yaitu who, whom, which, whose, dan that.
*Klausa Adverbial (Adverbial Clause)
Klusa terikat yang bertindak sebagai adverbial ditandai dengan subordinate conjunction.
THANK YOU... :) :) :)
SEMOGA BERMANFAAT YA GALS... :)
MORPHOLOGY
MORPHOLOGY
MORPHOLOGY adalah cabang linguistik yang mempelajari seluk-beluk kata serta fungsi perubahan-perubahan bentuk katan tersebut, baik fungsi gramatik maupun fungsi semantik.
Kata morphology berasal dari bahasa yunani yaitu MORPHOLOGIE . Morphe yang digabungkan dengan logos. Morphe yang berarti bentuk dan logos ialah ilmu. jadi bedasarkan makna unsur-unsur pembentukannya, kata morphology berarti ilmu tentang bentuk.
Dalam kaitannya dengan kebahasaan, yang dipelajari dalam morphology ialah bentuk kata. Selain itu perubahan bentuk kata dan makna juga akan dibahas dalm morphology.
MORFEM adalah satuan bahasa yang turut serta dalam pembentukan kata dan dapat dibedakan artinya. Morfem juga dapat dikatakan bagian terkecil dari pembentukan kata dan disesuaikan dengan aturan suatu bahasa.
Ada dua macam jenis morfem
1. free morpheme
yaitu morfem yang bisa berdiri sendiri. Dan biasanya menggunakan noun,verb,adj dan preposition. seperti; cat,dog,horse,etc. Free morfem dibagi menjadi 2:
-Lexical morphemes
Morfem yang bisa berdiri sendiri dan bisa mnyampaikan isi dari pesan(makna) yang akan disampaikan.
-Functional morphemes
Morfem yang tidak bisa berdiri sendiri, tapi belum jelas apa isi yang akan disampaikan(maknanya).
2. Bound morpheme
yaitu morfem yang tiak dapat berdiri sendiri, melainkan harus terikat dengan morphem yang lainnya.
Dibagi menjadi dua,yaitu:
-Derivational morphemes
adalah morfem yang dikaitkan dengan morfem yang lain akan membentuk kata yang baru atau untuk membentuk kata dengan gramatika(lexeme) yang berbeda dari kata sebelumnya. dan dalam Derivational morphemes terdapat dua bagian yaitu bisa terletak didepan(in the begining of word) atau di akhir kata(end of word).
EX; BEAUTYFUL(adj). diperoleh dari kata Beauty(noun) yang mendapat tambahan morfem "ful" yang mengubah noun menjadi adjective.
-Inflectional morphemes
adalah morfem yang dikaitkan pada morfem lain yang hanya untuk mengindentifikasi gramatikanya, bukan untuk mengahasilkan kata baru atau membentuk kata dengan gramatika yang berbeda.
EX; PENS(noun). diperoleh dari kata pen(noun), disini pen berbah menjadi pens bukan karena berubah maknanya tetapi untuk menjelaskan bahwa benda tersebut menjadi banyak(plural).
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